{"id":7654,"date":"2023-03-16T20:02:03","date_gmt":"2023-03-16T20:02:03","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/?page_id=7654"},"modified":"2023-05-31T00:37:17","modified_gmt":"2023-05-31T00:37:17","slug":"strykowski","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/","title":{"rendered":"Hearing the Interrogative in the Cadences of Sigismondo d\u2019India: A Quantitative Analysis of the Polyphonic Madrigals"},"content":{"rendered":"\n\n\n\n\n<script type=\"text\/x-mathjax-config\">\nMathJax.Hub.Config({\n messageStyle: \"none\"\n});\n<\/script>\n\n<style>\n.wp-block-table table tr:first-child {border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-top: 1pt solid black;}\n.wp-block-table table tr:last-child {border-bottom: 1pt solid black;}\n.wp-block-table table tr td:last-child {border-left: 1pt solid black;}\n.wp-block-table table tr td:first-child {padding-left: 6pt;}\n<\/style>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Derek R. Strykowski<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Abstract<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\"><p>Although two of the madrigals from his Third Book of 1615 end in lovelorn questions, Sigismondo d\u2019India furnishes one of them with a far stronger final cadence than the other. To understand why, this corpus study investigates the expressive meaning of cadences in a quantitative analysis of the 85 madrigals that d\u2019India published within his first five books (1606\u201316). Three determinants of cadential strength\u2014cadence type, fullness, and modal degree of resolution\u2014test the hypothesis that the cadences which d\u2019India employs at the close of interrogative sentences will tend to be weaker than those he employs at the close of other sentences. The results are consistent with the argument that d\u2019India sought to account for the sense and intonation of an interrogative sentence when setting it to music, yet also suggest that such concerns sometimes conflicted with his obligation to present a coherent musical structure.<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/36-strykowski\/\" data-type=\"page\" data-id=\"8813\">View PDF<\/a><br><a href=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/\" data-type=\"page\" data-id=\"7648\">Return to Volume 36<\/a><\/p><\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Keywords and phrases<\/strong>: Sigismondo d\u2019India; cadence; madrigal; syntax; intonation<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"su-note\"  style=\"border-color:#cacaca;border-radius:4px;-moz-border-radius:4px;-webkit-border-radius:4px;\"><div class=\"su-note-inner su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\" style=\"background-color:#e4e4e4;border-color:#ffffff;color:#333333;border-radius:4px;-moz-border-radius:4px;-webkit-border-radius:4px;\"><strong>Acknowledgments: <\/strong>I am honored to have presented portions of this research at the third annual Italian Madrigal Symposium (Colgate University, 2018) and at the annual meeting of the American Musicological Society (Boston, 2019). The feedback received at both events has been invaluable. I am particularly indebted to Massimo Ossi, Julie Cumming, Jessie Ann Owens, Martin Morell, Seth Coluzzi, James Currie, and the anonymous reviewers of <em>Int\u00e9gral<\/em> for their thoughtful criticism of the study and its methodological approach.<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>1. Introduction<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"has-drop-cap\">All but one of the five-part madrigals that Sigismondo d\u2019India published in his Third Book of 1615 conclude with the same familiar cadence: a resolution to the final pitch via stepwise contrary motion, accompanied by the leap of a rising fourth or a falling fifth to the same pitch in the bass. The remaining voices fill out the harmony. But in \u201cO fugace, o superba,\u201d the eighth work in the set, the composer eschews what some scholars now call a full authentic cadence to provide a radically different ending to the music.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\"><figure class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized\"><a href=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/example01\/\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example01.png\" alt=\"Strykowski, Example 1\" class=\"wp-image-7673\" width=\"512\" srcset=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example01.png 1579w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example01-300x213.png 300w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example01-1024x728.png 1024w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example01-768x546.png 768w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example01-1536x1091.png 1536w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 706px) 89vw, (max-width: 767px) 82vw, 740px\" \/><\/a><figcaption><br><br><br><em>Example 1.&nbsp; An unusual final cadence concludes the phrase \u201cAmarilli fugace, ove mi lasci?\u201d (Where dost thou leave me, fleeing thus from me?) in mm. 54\u201357 of d\u2019India\u2019s \u201cO fugace, o superba\u201d ([1615] 1998, 68).<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p>As the madrigal reaches its final harmony (Example 1), the expected contrary motion is nowhere to be found.<span id='easy-footnote-1-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-1-7654' title='The edition prints the tenor syllable \u201c-li\u201d beneath a rest, an error that has been corrected in Example 1.'><sup>1<\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span id='easy-footnote-2-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-2-7654' title='Translations of all poetry that d\u2019India has set to music are by Barbara Reynolds, here and throughout the article, and appear in the modern d\u2019India edition cited above (1997\u20132000). Section 2 discusses both the sources of the poetry and the accuracy of such translations.'><sup>2<\/sup><\/a><\/span> The leap in the bass spans not a perfect fourth or fifth but instead a minor third. The listener may consequently feel a sense of interruption, as if the singers have discontinued the music before truly reaching the end of the phrase. That d\u2019India chooses not to provide the typical <em>longae<\/em> note values for the final harmony, creating an effect that the work\u2019s modern editors (d\u2019India [1615] 1998, 181) have deemed \u201cabrupt,\u201d serves only to underscore the listener\u2019s impression that the singers are being cut short.<\/p>\n<p>While some contemporary analysts may hear the final harmony (D major) as \u201cdominant\u201d to the penultimate harmony (G major), the length of the \u201ctonic\u201d harmony is too short\u2014and the reasoning too anachronistic\u2014for the progression to be considered a half cadence. Nor does the expected half-step descent to F$$\\sharp$$ occur within a single voice part, as would better suit the contrapuntal norms of the style. There is nevertheless a cadence of sorts to be found at the end of the phrase. Consider the falling half step from E$$\\flat$$ to D heard in the third voice (m. 56), and the broader motion between those same pitches that the bass provides in mm. 56\u201357. Both evoke the downward stepwise resolution of a Phrygian cadence, even as the highest voice fails to produce the expected contrary motion. Add to this the momentary harmonic diversion that immediately precedes the final harmony, and the cadence is almost unrecognizable.<\/p>\n<p>For d\u2019India to have concluded the madrigal with such an extraordinary gesture must mean something. Stefano La Via (2013, 51\u201352) has called attention to the range of extramusical connotations that Vincenzo Galilei ascribes to four of the most common cadence types found in the Italian madrigal: those that La Via has identified as Phrygian, half, perfect, and authentic.<span id='easy-footnote-3-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-3-7654' title='Galilei himself does not employ such contemporary terminology to identify the four cadence types, but I follow La Via\u2019s lead in using the abovementioned labels as a convenient shorthand throughout the present article. Operational definitions for each of the cadence types are provided in the Appendix.'><sup>3<\/sup><\/a><\/span> He has demonstrated that Galilei, along with many composers of the <em>seconda pratica<\/em>, understood the various cadence types to provide not only markers of musical syntax but also a means of semantic expression.<span id='easy-footnote-4-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-4-7654' title='\u201cThe semantic use of cadences is particularly prevalent in the polyphonic repertoire of the sixteenth-century Italian madrigal\u201d (La Via 2013, 49ff).'><sup>4<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Predictably, Galilei associates the contrapuntal strength of the authentic cadence type with traits such as pleasure and virility, the weaker types with traits such as softness, effeminacy, and unease (<em>inquieta<\/em>). A composer must decide not only the basic cadence type but also other variables such as rhythmic (im)perfection and textural fullness. Naturally, some of the combinations that result will sound more conclusive than others.<\/p>\n<p>La Via (2013, 49) concludes that \u201ccadences have always played a role that is not only syntactic or superficially structural but also semantic, forming part of the musical expression of the text,\u201d especially in the Italian madrigal. A glance at the text of \u201cO fugace, o superba\u201d (d\u2019India [1615] 1998, 62) suggests almost immediately how its message may have influenced d\u2019India\u2019s compositional treatment of the final cadence:<\/p>\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\"><p>O fugace, o superba,<br>O pi\u00f9 che vento rapida e lieve,<br>O pi\u00f9 che marmo dura:<br>A le mie voci ed all\u2019incendio mio,<br>Via pi\u00f9 fredda che neve,<br>Amarilli crudel, spietata e ria,<br>Ove fuggi? O chi fuggi? O perch\u00e9 fuggi?<br>Deh! Ferma, ohim\u00e8, lo sbigottito piede,<br>Amarilli! Deh! Torna e ferma alquanto!<br>Amarilli fugace, ove mi lasci?<\/p><\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\"><p><em>O swift of foot, in proud disdain,<br>Faster and lighter than the winds that blow,<br>Unyielding more than marble is<br>To my entreaties and my burning love,<br>Colder by far than any snow,<br>O cruel Amaryllis, merciless,<br>Where art thou fleeing, and from whom, and why?<br>Ah, stay, alas! thy terror-driven feet;<br>Turn back, o Amaryllis, bide a while!<br>Where dost thou leave me, fleeing thus from me?<\/em><\/p><\/blockquote>\n\n\n<p>The lyrics closely resemble a rendition of the story of Daphne and Apollo that Giambattista Marino (1627, 37\u201338) would publish five years later in his celebrated <em>Egloghe boscherecce<\/em> of 1620. The lines are all but identical except for those that make reference to Daphne (as \u201cDafne\u201d or the \u201cninfa\u201d) rather than to Amaryllis. In d\u2019India\u2019s setting, the unusual final cadence would appear to evoke the state of confusion\u2014or sullen frustration\u2014in which the protagonist finds himself as Amaryllis flees his advances. The cadence is timed to coincide with the delivery of one final, desperate question: \u201cove mi lasci?\u201d (where dost thou leave me?), a question to which the protagonist receives no reply. The text, like the music, ends without clear resolution.<\/p>\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1.1 The Patterns of Composition<\/h4>\n\n\n<p>Yet even as \u201cO fugace\u201d remains the only madrigal in the Third Book to conclude without a full authentic cadence, it is one of two madrigals in the book to end with a question. The text of \u201cDove, ah dove t\u2019en vai?\u201d (d\u2019India [1615] 1998, 9) ends with a plea born of similar romantic frustration: \u201cQual ben hor pi\u00f9 m\u2019avanza,\/Se fuggi tu, dolcissima speranza?\u201d (What good to me is left\/If, sweetest hope, of you I am bereft?). Despite its poetic resemblance to \u201cO fugace,\u201d d\u2019India concludes the madrigal with an authentic cadence (Example 2) as strong and as full as any of the other final cadences in the collection.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\"><figure class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized\"><a href=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/example02\/\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example02.jpg\" alt=\"Strykowski, Example 2\" class=\"wp-image-7677\" width=\"512\" srcset=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example02.jpg 1715w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example02-300x206.jpg 300w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example02-1024x702.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example02-768x527.jpg 768w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example02-1536x1053.jpg 1536w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 706px) 89vw, (max-width: 767px) 82vw, 740px\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Example 2. A full authentic cadence concludes the final phrase \u201cSe fuggi tu, dolcissima speranza?\u201d (If, sweetest hope, of you I am bereft?) in mm. 51\u201354 of d\u2019India\u2019s \u201cDove, ah dove t\u2019en vai?\u201d ([1615] 1998, 16).<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n<p>When examined side by side, the pair of examples presented thus far would seem to belie a general rule. Seeing as such lovelorn questions could lead d\u2019India to end his madrigals with either ordinary or idiosyncratic cadences, which was he more likely to employ? To arrive at a satisfactory answer to this research question, we must therefore understand the frequency with which d\u2019India gave special cadential treatment to interrogative sentence endings.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>A wide spectrum of empirical methodologies is available for this purpose, including the familiar qualitative analysis of several well-chosen examples. Yet because we seek evidence of a real statistical tendency, a quantitative method seems most appropriate here. To be more specific, a narrowly conceived <em>corpus study<\/em> of the cadences found at sentence endings throughout d\u2019India\u2019s madrigals can help to illuminate the general patterns of his behavior as a composer.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Even with such a corpus study at its heart, the present research strikes a balance between the identification of broad compositional trends and the application of those trends in the analysis of specific musical examples. A familiarity with those trends can help us to make better sense of cadences such as those presented above by revealing when d\u2019India deviates from the statistical norms of his style. The general can inform the particular, in other words, just as\u2014collectively\u2014the particular informs the general. The two approaches are thus interrelated, although by committing to a corpus study we must consequently forgo much of the detailed analysis that a purely qualitative study of individual works would require.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>This points to the larger ramifications of the chosen method: that such quantitative research provides a welcome measure of statistical certainty when it comes to the broad trends, but can do little (we must acknowledge) to explain the many idiosyncrasies inherent to specific musical examples, even those drawn from within the corpus being studied. At the same time, the cadential behaviors observed here in madrigals of d\u2019India readily invite comparison with those to be observed in the madrigals of other composers from the period. The works of those who flourished before and after d\u2019India present other possible avenues of comparative research.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1.2 Hypothesis<\/h4>\n\n\n<p>In order to conduct a formal empirical study\u2014\u201cformal\u201d in the sense that we can determine objectively whether the outcome of the study is true or false\u2014we must begin with a clear hypothesis in hand: that the cadences which d\u2019India employs at the close of interrogative sentences will tend to be weaker than those he employs at the close of other types of sentences. The corresponding null hypothesis (H\u2080) would find no observable difference in the strength of the cadences that d\u2019India employs at interrogative sentence endings. To prove or disprove this hypothesis will not, of course, tell us why d\u2019India chose specifically to conclude \u201cO fugace, o superba\u201d and \u201cDove, ah dove t\u2019en vai?\u201d as he did. But it will reveal which of the two is more anomalous, more difficult to explain within the patterns of d\u2019India\u2019s compositional style.<\/p>\n<p>After first introducing the d\u2019India corpus in Section 2, the study tests the above hypothesis in Section 3 by measuring three determinants of cadential weakness in turn: cadence type, fullness, and modal degree of resolution. Section 4 compares the results against both historical and contemporary theoretical arguments before exploring whether d\u2019India treats final cadences differently than those that occur earlier in the music. Finally, Section 5 addresses the theoretical import of the study and suggests some avenues of future research.<\/p>\n<p>Many readers will recall Monteverdi\u2019s (1607) well-known declaration that in vocal music of the period, \u201cthe harmony . . . becomes not the master of the words but the servant\u201d (l\u2019armonia . . . di padrona diventa serva al oratione). Such a logic would suggest that the semantically unremarkable cadence which ends \u201cDove, ah dove t\u2019en vai?\u201d may, in its very normality, be the exception rather than the rule. Yet the results described below reveal that for d\u2019India, the relationship between words and music was far more nuanced than this. All told, the study both clarifies and complicates our understanding of the composer\u2019s text setting practices.<\/p>\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>2. The Madrigals of Sigismondo d\u2019India<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n<p>To determine whether the hypothesis presented above has merit, we must therefore examine the cadences with which d\u2019India accompanies all types of sentence endings (not only interrogatives) throughout the corpus of his polyphonic madrigals. Our attention will return to the individual analysis of the two madrigals introduced earlier once the statistical results of the corpus study are in hand.<\/p>\n<p>Sigismondo d\u2019India published eight books of five-part madrigals between 1606 and 1624. Giuseppe Collisani (1998, 37) has observed that \u201cthe madrigal, precious jewel of the sixteenth-century musical treasure trove, lived at that moment in a mature and very florid phase\u201d even as d\u2019India began to publish his first essays in the genre. To be less charitable, the madrigal\u2014like polyphonic music in general\u2014was fast becoming an antique. It was, of course, not the only genre to give exercise to contemporaneous concerns about the relationship between words and music; many madrigalists active at the turn of the seventeenth century became accomplished composers of monody as well.<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, d\u2019India often receives the most acclaim for his contributions to the newer monodic styles of vocal composition. There, as throughout his works, the composer demonstrates a skillful attention to the practice of text setting\u2014even at the expense of musical propriety. To hear d\u2019India himself tell it, the subject was one that had fascinated him since youth. In his introduction to <em>Le Musiche<\/em> of 1609, the composer recalls:<\/p>\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\"><p>I discovered that one could compose in an authentic manner using extraordinary intervals, passing with as many novelties as possible from one consonance to the next, in accordance with the varied meanings of the words, and that by this means the songs would have greater emotion, and greater power to move the emotions of the soul, than they would have if they had been composed all in one style with ordinary progressions. (1609, iv)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n\n\n<p>The outcome was an innovative monodic style that John J. Joyce (1981, xv\u2013xvi) has nevertheless found to be \u201cindebted to sixteenth-century vocal practice.\u201d He notes in particular that d\u2019India favored prominent speech rhythms even as he integrated them within a broader palette of melodic techniques, that he did not hesitate to employ wide leaps and chromaticisms in the service of melodic declamation, that he took similar license with the handling of harmonic progressions, and that he established a diverse collection of original vocal ornaments. These techniques came to define d\u2019India as a monodist but also reveal the expressive priorities that characterize his work in other genres.<\/p>\n<p>In tandem with his cultivation of the monodic style outlined above, d\u2019India maintained an interest in polyphonic writing throughout his career and became one of the last great exponents of the <em>seconda pratica<\/em> madrigal as well. \u201cIn the relationship between poetic text and musical dress d\u2019India followed the Monteverdian principle of the <em>seconda pratica<\/em>,\u201d writes Giuseppe Collisani (1998, 39\u201340). Collisani observes that d\u2019India accomplished this by ensuring that his music, as the \u201cservant of the words,\u201d would always agree with the content of the text, even as he eschewed\u2014again like Monteverdi\u2014many of the more formulaic expressive devices that by then had become text-setting clich\u00e9s. More recently, scholars like Gregory J. Decker (2014\u201315, 208) have argued that the composer\u2019s approach to text setting differed fundamentally from that of Monteverdi due to the formative influence of expressionist madrigal composers such as Giaches de Wert. However, the general consensus appears to be that d\u2019India was more adept than most at blending Wert\u2019s expressionist style with those of younger composers such as Marenzio, Gesualdo, and indeed Monteverdi (see Joyce and Watkins 2001). Such an association with Monteverdi and his <em>second pratica<\/em> begins already to imply that when it came to writing cadences, d\u2019India may well have prioritized the text over the music.<\/p>\n<p>The present study examines that claim within the five books of polyphonic madrigals that d\u2019India published between 1606 and 1616, which together comprise the modern edition edited by John Steele and Suzanne Court. The Third Book of 1615 incorporates a <em>basso continuo<\/em> part\u2014obligatory in its final eight <em>concertato<\/em> madrigals\u2014in imitation of the approach taken in Monteverdi\u2019s Fifth Book of 1605, while the other volumes are composed purely in the polyphonic tradition. D\u2019India later published three additional books of five-part madrigals, which for various reasons do not appear in the aforementioned edition.<span id='easy-footnote-5-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-5-7654' title='The identity of the Sixth Book remains uncertain, the Seventh is missing a voice part, and the Eighth is composed entirely in the concertato style. See editors\u2019 preface to d\u2019India ([1606] 1997, vii).'><sup>5<\/sup><\/a><\/span> The 85 madrigals that d\u2019India published within the first five books alone nevertheless form an impressive corpus.<\/p>\n<p>The edition is especially useful because Steele and Court provide not only the music of each madrigal in score, but also the poetry that d\u2019India chose to set, printed at the beginning of the score in a form that aligns whenever possible with an authoritative modern edition of the text in question (d\u2019India [1606] 1997, 103). The punctuation of that poetry provides a ready means to identify the interrogative sentences found therein without regard to the historically haphazard punctuation that d\u2019India may have encountered or himself propagated while setting it to music.<span id='easy-footnote-6-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-6-7654' title='Of course, the peril of such an approach is that it takes for granted that the punctuation found in the edition\u2019s poetry is itself reliable. An anonymous reviewer has discovered at least one mistake. The poem is Battista Guarini\u2019s \u201cHoggi nacqui, ben mio,\u201d which d\u2019India sets in his Fifth Book of 1616. As printed at the beginning of the score, the final lines of the poem read \u201cO fortunato il mio natal, se vui\/Direte con la lingua, e col desio.\/Hoggi nacque il ben mio\u201d (d\u2019India [1616] 2000, 97). The period that follows \u201cdesio\u201d in the penultimate line severs an appeal for the beloved to speak (\u201cse vui\/Direte. . .\u201d) from the desired speech itself (\u201cHoggi nacque il ben mio\u201d). Whereas Guarini\u2019s (1598, 72) Rime has a comma here, the use of a period can be traced to the G. A. Tumermani\u2019s (1737, 68) later edition, which Steele and Court acknowledge as a source.'><sup>6<\/sup><\/a><\/span> In fact, the punctuation occasionally varies between voice parts even in the modern musical edition used here. The poems are also accompanied by rhymed English translations crafted by Barbara Reynolds, although these understandably distort the syntax\u2014and at times the meaning\u2014of the original Italian.<\/p>\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2.1 Questions in Text and Speech<\/h4>\n\n\n<p>Punctuation is indeed the key to extending La Via\u2019s arguments about the role of cadences, quoted earlier, to a third domain within which they can inform a listener\u2019s understanding of the madrigal: not the structure of the music, nor the meaning of the text, but rather the structure of the text\u2014that is, the sentence structure. This last domain comprises both syntax and prosody to the extent that a question such as \u201cove mi lasci?\u201d can govern not only the sentence\u2019s terminal punctuation mark but its intonation (among other prosodic concerns) as well.<\/p>\n<p>Taking first the matter of syntax, we must acknowledge that sentences can end differently. Interrogative sentences usually end with a question mark, while declarative sentences usually end with a period. Thus are we able to distinguish in written language between the meanings of nearly identical phrases such as:<\/p>\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\"><p>Tu me \u2019l nieghi?<br>Tu me \u2019l nieghi.<span id='easy-footnote-7-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-7-7654' title='The question \u201cTu me \u2019l nieghi?\u201d (Do you deny me?) begins the second part of d\u2019India\u2019s \u201cFiume, ch\u2019a l\u2019onde tue; Ahi, tu me \u2019l nieghi?\u201d ([1606] 1997, 42\u201354).'><sup>7<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/blockquote>\n\n\n<p>In other words, interrogative sentences are often marked by a unique syntactical feature: the presence of a question mark at the end. This is not always the case, of course, particularly in texts that precede the era of standardized punctuation. Other linguistic devices are available by which to cast a sentence in the interrogative\u2014whether in English or Italian\u2014that do not depend on the shape of the final punctuation mark to be understood. Even so, writers in Western Europe have been making use of the question mark since long before the sixteenth century. During the Middle Ages, the <em>punctus interrogativus<\/em> was one of the four <em>positurae<\/em> with which scribes began to punctuate liturgical manuscripts (Parkes 1993, 306). There is perhaps some fortuity in the fact that these symbols appear to have originated in a performative context, to indicate the stock melodic formulae with which to conclude chanted passages of the liturgy (Parkes 1993, 36).<\/p>\n<p>By the late sixteenth century, Italian humanists such as Lionardo Salviati understood the question mark to possess \u201cthe function of signaling a pause that, from the point of view of syntactic force, is equivalent to that indicated by the period, but which differs in the modality (at once logical-syntactic and intonational) that marks the sentence (interrogative rather than assertive)\u201d (Tonani 2011). The fact that question marks share the same \u201csyntactic force\u201d as periods and other terminal punctuation symbols is important to keep in mind as we proceed.<\/p>\n<p>The difference is often not just a matter of syntax but of prosody, as Tonani (2011) has also observed. That is to say, questions can sound different than declarative statements, too. Try speaking aloud the pair of sentences printed above. Given that such distinctions are frequently communicated in nonmusical speech through the use of appropriate stress and intonation, we must consider whether in music a sentence ending can similarly influence the character of the melody that supports it.<\/p>\n<p>To be sure, questions spoken in Italian require much the same intonation as they do in English. The two basic patterns of intonation that most often accompany them are (1) a fall in pitch and (2) a fall and then a rise. Marguerite Chapallaz (1964, 309) explains that speakers of Italian rely even more on the telltale second pattern when voicing general (i.e., yes\u2013no) questions because the language \u201chas no special grammatical written forms corresponding to <em>est-ce que<\/em> or to the inversion of the subject in French, nor to the anomalous finites in question forms in English.\u201d An interrogative sentence may thus have provided a composer of the Italian madrigal with the opportunity to communicate the punctuation that makes it a question through the prosody with which a speaker would intone that fact in a non-musical context.<\/p>\n<p>The present corpus study undertakes one of the first empirical explorations of the extent to which composers like d\u2019India did, in fact, avail themselves of that opportunity. At stake is the possibility that d\u2019India may have intended the final cadence of \u201cO fugace, o superba\u201d to communicate not only the meaning of the speaker\u2019s emotionally charged question but also its very identity as an interrogative phrase.<\/p>\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2.2 Sentences in the Corpus<\/h4>\n\n\n<p>The poetry is therefore an essential starting point. Taking each madrigal in turn, the researcher has manually identified and catalogued all of the complete sentences (usually three or four) that together form the dozen or so lines of the poem, whether or not they pose a question. The sentences must satisfy an operational definition that recognizes as a complete sentence any sequence of three or more words\u2014regardless of grammar\u2014that concludes with, but does not otherwise contain, one of the following terminal punctuation marks: a period ( . ), an exclamation mark ( ! ), or a question mark ( ? ). By their very nature, other punctuation marks such as a comma or a colon signal that the sentence has not yet reached its conclusion. There are, however, a handful of cases in which d\u2019India concludes an entire section of music (distinguished in the modern edition by the presence of a double bar line) with a cadence that falls on one of these other marks.<span id='easy-footnote-8-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-8-7654' title='The phenomenon occurs at the line \u201cChi sospirando fa sospirar voi,\u201d in d\u2019India, \u201cFelice chi vi mira; Ben hebbe amica stella\u201d (d\u2019India [1606] 1997, 27); at \u201cEmpia di calde perle un bianco velo:\u201d in \u201cFilli, mirando il cielo; Io mi distill\u2019in pianto\u201d (d\u2019India [1606] 1997, 94); at \u201cSon\u2019anco i miei tormenti:\u201d in \u201cStrana armonia d\u2019amore; In ci\u00f2 sol differenti\u201d (d\u2019India [1616] 1999, 70); at \u201cDi giacinti e v\u00efole il Po si veste:\u201d in \u201cFelice Primavera; Danzan le Ninfe\u201d (d\u2019India [1616] 2000, 5); and at \u201cFan gl\u2019augelletti a lo scherzar de venti;\u201d in \u201cLa giovinetta scorza; E l\u2019ombra fresca e lieta\u201d (d\u2019India [1616] 2000, 108). In all but the second case, the composer also makes a substantial repetition of the sentence (i.e., the clause).'><sup>8<\/sup><\/a><\/span> These rare instances are included in the data as if the phrases had ended with a period instead.<\/p>\n<p>Most, but not all, of the sentences to be found in the poetry conclude at the end of a printed line. A few of the texts feature either enjambed or very short sentences that conclude somewhere in the middle. With rare exceptions, d\u2019India always aligns the end of a sentence with a cadence in the music. Given that so many of the printed lines end with some form of punctuation, it hardly comes as a surprise that the composer places cadences at many line breaks as well. In accordance with the hypothesis presented above, however, note that the present study concentrates exclusively upon d\u2019India\u2019s treatment of the ends of complete sentences and not upon his treatment of the ends of poetic lines. For example, here is a madrigal text authored by Ottavio Rinuccini that d\u2019India ([1615] 1998, 17) sets to music in his Third Book of 1615:<\/p>\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\"><p>Dovr\u00f2 dunque morire<br>Pria che di novo io miri<br>Voi bramata cagion de miei martiri?<br>Mio perduto tesoro,<br>Non poter dirvi pria ch\u2019io mora, \u201cio moro\u201d?<br>O miseria inaudita!<br>Non poter dir a voi: \u201cmoro, mia vita!\u201d<span id='easy-footnote-9-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-9-7654' title='Capitalization of the poetic lines reflects how Steele and Court have chosen to present the poetry in the edition cited here.'><sup>9<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/blockquote>\n\n\n<p>Although the poem occupies seven lines of printed text, the methodology described above relies on the question marks and exclamation points found therein to isolate four complete sentences, each ending in a cadence.<\/p>\n<p>The terminal punctuation marks therefore provide a straightforward way to classify the sentences that they conclude. Sentences that end with a question mark may be considered interrogative, while those that end with an exclamation mark or a period may generally be considered exclamatory or declarative.<span id='easy-footnote-10-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-10-7654' title='In rare instances, as noted above, phrases that end in a colon or semicolon are also categorized as complete yet non-interrogative sentences when they conclude an entire section of music.'><sup>10<\/sup><\/a><\/span> As such a method does not recognize the possibility of (say) an imperative sentence, these operational definitions would be inadequate were the task not simply to separate the interrogative sentences from the rest. And given the vagaries of seventeenth-century typesetting, noted earlier, the method described here is unlikely to be able to identify all of the interrogative sentences that are present in the corpus (a Type II error) because some of them\u2014even in a modern poetic edition\u2014may not be furnished with a question mark. But we can safely assume that any sentence which does end in a question mark is indeed an interrogative one. In other words, the possibility that the poetry consulted here would use a question mark at the end of a different type of sentence appears remote.<\/p>\n<p>We may also observe that d\u2019India did not give separate cadential treatment to short emotive interjections (e.g., \u201cDeh!\u201d) because their length does not readily support the contrapuntal motion necessary to form a complete cadence, even though they bear one of the terminal punctuation marks listed above. How short is too short? Conveniently, there are no two-word sentences in the corpus. For the sake of a clear operational definition, the study therefore ignores sentences that comprise only a single word while allowing those that comprise at least three words to remain in the data.<\/p>\n<p>D\u2019India sets most of the sentences found in the corpus just once, to be sung from beginning to end in the course of a single musical phrase\u2014or, for longer sentences, a series of phrases. In such cases, the cadence naturally falls at the end of the (final) phrase. Repetitions of the text are not infrequent, however, and thus necessitate a few additional rules. Some repetitions serve merely to prolong a sentence internally, especially by passing the text between different groups of voices, while others make a more substantial return to several poetic lines repeated as a unit. To exclude the former, the study includes cadences that fall before a textual repetition only when d\u2019India proceeds to repeat more than a single poetic line.<span id='easy-footnote-11-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-11-7654' title='A similar logic informs Steele and Court\u2019s editorial rules of capitalization: \u201cWe have retained capitals for the initial letter of the first word of each poetic line on its first occurrence only. . . . However, when whole large sections of text such as a couplet or more are repeated, we repeat the capitals\u201d (d\u2019India [1606] 1997, 103).'><sup>11<\/sup><\/a><\/span> One of the <em>concertato<\/em> madrigals found in Book Three also includes a printed repeat sign, which can be ignored entirely (d\u2019India [1615] 1998, 104). Final cadences, including those that close a complete section in a multipartite madrigal, have been duly noted as well.<\/p>\n<p>Following the procedures described above, an analysis of the 85 poetic texts that d\u2019India sets to music in Books One through Five of his polyphonic madrigals shows that they contain 239 complete sentences between them. In five of his fourteen bipartite madrigals, the composer brings the first section of music to a close somewhere in the middle of a sentence.<span id='easy-footnote-12-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-12-7654' title='See note 9, above.'><sup>12<\/sup><\/a><\/span> The inclusion of these clauses-turned-sentences, as prescribed earlier, brings the total to 244. Finally, in setting the poetry to music, d\u2019India substantially repeats the texts of 87 sentences, which raises the total again to 331. This figure represents all of the sentences examined in the present study.<\/p>\n<p>All but four of the 331 sentences identified above reach their conclusion at the same time that the music reaches a cadence. In other words, d\u2019India almost always aligns the end of a sentence with the end of a musical phrase. Two of the exceptions appear together in \u201cO fugace, o superba\u201d (d\u2019India [1615] 1998, 66) at the beginning of the line \u201cOve fuggi? O chi fuggi? O perch\u00e9 fuggi?\u201d, which the composer sets as a single musical phrase. The third is a somewhat longer interrogative sentence that also ends in enjambment, while the fourth is a declarative sentence that does not.<span id='easy-footnote-13-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-13-7654' title=' No cadence occurs at the question mark found in the line \u201cOcchi crudi? O pietosi\u201d in \u201cPerch\u00e9 non mi mirate?\u201d (d\u2019India [1615] 1998, 58\u201359), nor at the period that ends the line \u201cDe gli alati sospiri.\u201d in \u201cO rimembranza amara\u201d (d\u2019India [1615] 1998, 162).'><sup>13<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Furthermore, 104 sentences end in conjunction with the end of a final phrase: one that concludes either the entire work or (in a multipartite madrigal) a distinct section thereof.<\/p>\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>Interrogative<\/td><td>Other Types<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>All Types<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Middle of phrase<\/td><td>3<\/td><td>1<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>4<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>End of interior phrase<\/td><td>56<\/td><td>167<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>223<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>End of final phrase<\/td><td>6<\/td><td>98<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>104<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Total<\/td><td>65<\/td><td>266<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>331<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><figcaption>Table 1. Musical placement of sentence endings by sentence type in Sigismondo d\u2019India\u2019s first five books of polyphonic madrigals.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n<p>The preceding observations are summarized in Table 1, which also reveals that 65 of the sentences (about 20 percent) can be identified as interrogative due to the presence of a question mark as the final point of punctuation. This figure includes not only the three enjambed sentences noted above but also six of the 104 sentences that conclude at the end of a section or a work. The remaining sentences, most ending with either a period or an exclamation mark, are not only declarative or exclamatory in nature but at other times imperative and perhaps even interrogative as well.<\/p>\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2.3 Syntax in Word and Music<\/h4>\n\n\n<p>Finally, the hypothesis that d\u2019India would employ weaker cadences at interrogative sentence endings supposes that madrigal composers do, in fact, align the ends of sentences with the ends of musical phrases when setting a text. That d\u2019India concludes only 4 of 331 sentences from the corpus in the middle of a musical phrase establishes the broad accuracy of this supposition. It is furthermore a matter on which most sixteenth-century theorists are in strong agreement:<\/p>\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\"><p>You ought in every way to observe that which many of the ancients already observed, namely, to place such rests nowhere else but at the end of phrases or on the punctuation of the text to which the music was composed and likewise at the end of every sentence. . . . By no means should they be placed anywhere before the meaning is complete, as in the middle of a clause, for anyone who places them thus proves truly to be an ass, a blockhead, and an ignoramus. (Zarlino [1558] 1965, 212, trans. Harr\u00e1n 1986, 393)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n\n\n<p>Here, Gioseffo Zarlino drives home the point that when setting a text to music, composers should refrain from ending a musical phrase in places that might spoil the natural declamation of the spoken sentence, lest the resulting confusion betray them to be any of the unfortunate creatures cited at the end of the paragraph.<\/p>\n<p>Zarlino, who published his <em>Istitutioni harmoniche<\/em> in 1558, is hardly the only writer to insist that composers pay attention to the alignment of textual and musical phrasing. For example, Calvisius echoes Zarlino\u2019s admonition in 1592 with the advice that \u201cthough a proper cadence, then, may have a place anywhere at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a particular song . . . , it is customarily made nowhere else but at the end of the whole piece or of its sentences\u201d (Calvisius 1592, fol. I, 3\u20133v, trans. Harr\u00e1n 1986, 395\u2013396). The late Don Harr\u00e1n has assembled a catalog of these injunctions from an impressive number of sixteenth-century theorists in his book <em>Word-Tone Relations in Musical Thought<\/em> (1986, 391\u2013396). He locates them in the writings of not only Zarlino (1558) but also predecessors such as Giovanni Maria Lanfranco (1533) and Giovanni del Lago (1540) through later theorists such as Gaspar Stoquerus (ca. 1570) and the aforementioned Seth Calvisius (1592). Gary Towne (1990, 265\u2013266) has since distilled the entire collection into a general maxim\u2014namely, that \u201ccomposers should plan cadences and rests so musical and textual phrases coincide.\u201d<span id='easy-footnote-14-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-14-7654' title=' Other scholars who have addressed the same topic include Karol Berger (1987, 137) and Bernhard Meier (1988, 89). In his commentary on the preceding two sources, Mich\u00e8le Fromson (1991, 180) notes that \u201calthough both authors [i.e., Berger and Meier] associate perfect cadences with the termination of a relatively complete syntactic unit of text, neither requires the two events to be coordinated.\u201d'><sup>14<\/sup><\/a><\/span>\n<p>When stated in so few words, the advice begins to feel rather obvious. And, as noted in the introduction, Monteverdi\u2019s insistence that the music is the servant of the words helps to underscore the importance that the principles of text setting hold for composers as well. Writing in 1607, Monteverdi is at least a generation younger than any of the theorists cited above, but for genres like the Italian madrigal, his <em>seconda pratica<\/em> may represent less a break with sixteenth-century humanism than the realization of its implications (see Decker 2014\u201315, 183\u2013189). Many contemporary scholars have thus approached the madrigal with an eye to understanding its integration of text and music. Some (e.g., Strykowski 2016, 109) study the text-painting devices through which madrigal composers convey the meaning of particular words or phrases within the music itself. Others (e.g., Meier 1990, 182\u2013190) examine the strategies by which composers respond to the broader character or affect of the text, especially with regard to the choice of mode.<\/p>\n<p>The advice that textual and musical phrases should align for the sake of clarity broaches a rather different topic, however, one that inhabits neither the localized domain of text painting nor the more nebulous one of affect. It exists instead at a level of middling specificity, namely that of syntax\u2014the ordering and grouping of words (or, in music, of notes). As if to emphasize this point, Zarlino ([1558] 1965, 221, trans. Harr\u00e1n 1986, 396) goes so far as to claim that \u201cthe cadence has the same value in music as the period in speech, and could truly be called the period of song.\u201d Calvisius (1592, fol. I, 3\u20133v, trans. Harr\u00e1n 1986, 396), who again finds himself in agreement with Zarlino, likens the use of cadences and rests to a sort of musical punctuation.<\/p>\n<p>A number of madrigal composers appear also to have followed this line of reasoning, but few scholars have explored the implications of such compositional behavior at any depth. To find one of the only references to it in the recent Anglophone literature, we must consult Burkholder and Palisca\u2019s <em>Norton Anthology of Western Music<\/em> (2014), the popular undergraduate text. Open the anthology to its commentary on Jacques Arcadelt\u2019s \u201cIl bianco e dolce cigno\u201d (333) and you will learn that the early madrigal composers \u201cpreserved the syntax and meaning of the text\u201d more than did composers of the frottola because they situated cadences at the ends of enjambed sentences rather than simply at the ends of the poetic lines.<span id='easy-footnote-15-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-15-7654' title='La Via (2013, 99) notes the same behavior in passing about the madrigalist Alfonso Fontanelli, who is \u201cclearly much more interested in respecting the poem\u2019s syntactic articulation than its versification.\u201d DeFord (1985, 112) implies a similar distinction between the madrigal and lighter genres.'><sup>15<\/sup><\/a><\/span> The observation is, perhaps appropriately, an elementary one, readily apparent in the music.<\/p>\n<p>It is worth noting that d\u2019India himself tends to display such behavior in his treatment of enjambed sentences. Only three of the ten enjambed sentence endings to be found in the corpus remain as such, meaning that the composer allows the sentence to conclude within the middle of a musical phrase while reserving a proper cadence for the end of the poetic line. The other seven he furnishes with cadences of varying strengths.<\/p>\n<p>At any rate, the syntactical relationship between text and music thus represents a third domain of text-setting possibilities, but is that the whole of it? The syntax that holds a text together does more than to signal its starts and stops; it also holds the potential to influence its meaning. As Jay Swain (1997, 24) has argued, \u201cthe slightest change in the syntax, however superficial, changes something in the meaning, however small.\u201d Surely only one of Zarlino\u2019s blockheads would cease to consider the meaning of the text when composing the end of a musical phrase. While Zarlino\u2019s implicit association between a declarative sentence and the use of a full-stop authentic cadence may therefore seem reasonable enough, we are now better positioned to examine how a madrigal composer brings these considerations to bear when faced with the interrogative.<\/p>\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>3. Measuring Cadential Strength<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n<p>Having thus distinguished the interrogative sentences from the others in the corpus, we must next analyze the relative strength of the cadences with which d\u2019India concludes all types of sentences. As with the sentence types, the researcher has conducted the analysis manually and then tallied the results by computer. The three determinants of cadential strength (cadence type, fullness, and modal degree of resolution) are derived from the writings of the historical and contemporary theorists cited in each section.<\/p>\n<p>For each determinant, a chi-square test for goodness of fit enables us to assess the statistical significance of differences found in the composer\u2019s treatment of interrogative sentence endings. The test compares observations about the cadences that d\u2019India actually employs to a set of expected values calculated from observations about the cadences that he provides at all sentence endings. A significance threshold of <em>p<\/em> \u2264 .05 was chosen to ensure that the probability that observed differences are merely the result of chance, and therefore consistent with the null hypothesis, is smaller than one in twenty. In this way, we can be confident that any statistically significant results reflect an actual correlation between sentence ending and cadence design, which by extension promises to illuminate d\u2019India\u2019s own artistic behaviors (whether deliberate or subconscious) as a composer.<\/p>\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3.1 Types of Cadences<\/h4>\n\n\n<p>The first determinant is a system of classification that has been preserved since the time of d\u2019India himself through the work of theorists such as Vincenzo Galilei. In his writings on counterpoint from 1588\u20131591, Galilei (1980, 52 and 144) describes\u2014or at any rate, prescribes\u2014the use of four cadence types in polyphonic music of the period.<span id='easy-footnote-16-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-16-7654' title='His writings are discussed at length in La Via (2013, 49\u201353). As noted earlier, the terminology that La Via employs here is contemporary; Galilei himself did not identify the cadence types as \u201cauthentic,\u201d \u201chalf,\u201d etc.'><sup>16<\/sup><\/a><\/span> The strongest of these is what Stefano La Via (2013, 50) now calls the <em>authentic cadence<\/em>, in which a rising semitone generates contrary motion to the octave or unison and is accompanied by the leap of a perfect fourth or fifth to the same pitch class in the lowest voice. As detailed in the Appendix, these contrapuntal requirements provide a precise operational definition by which to identify full authentic cadences within a five-part texture, although attenuated cadences of all types (to be discussed below) are also to be found throughout the corpus.<\/p>\n<p>Like the authentic cadence type, the perfect and Phrygian cadence types are each characterized by the presence of two structural voices that resolve in contrary motion to the octave or the unison, even as the texture often contains four or five voices in total. A <em>perfect cadence<\/em> features an upward resolution by semitone in one of the structural voices, yet without the presence of the bass leap that characterizes the authentic cadence. The distinctive motion of a <em>Phrygian cadence<\/em> features a downward resolution by semitone in one of the structural voices instead. The same is true of the fourth cadence type. Like the Phrygian, the so-called <em>half cadence<\/em> features a falling semitone, but avoids in its most characteristic form any impression of upward resolution. The Appendix also provides complete operational definitions for the perfect, Phrygian, and half cadence types. Although it can be argued that Phrygian cadences are equivalent in force to authentic cadences when heard in the Phrygian mode, La Via (2013, 50) reminds us that Galilei considered all three of the cadences described above to be \u201cmuch weaker\u201d than the authentic. Information about the types of cadences found in a madrigal can therefore help to determine the relative strength of those cadences as well.<\/p>\n<p>Table 2 shows the relative frequency with which d\u2019India applies the four cadence types described by Galilei to the ends of the sentences in the corpus. The table includes both full cadences and attenuations\u2014abbreviated or distorted forms of the same four cadence types described here\u2014so as to permit a more comprehensive representation of d\u2019India\u2019s compositional strategy. Operational definitions for the most common cadential attenuations have been established in connection with the second stage of this study (see Section 2.2) and are also provided in the Appendix. The category marked \u201cOther Cadences\u201d includes phrase endings that do not meet any of the operational definitions for full and attenuated cadences. For example, the category accommodates an unusual monophonic phrase that appears in a madrigal from Book Three, the ending of which does not bear resemblance to any particular cadence type.<span id='easy-footnote-17-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-17-7654' title='The phrase (or phrase-like passage) in question delivers the final word of the sentence \u201cDeh! Ferma, ohim\u00e8, lo sbigottito piede,\/Amarilli!\u201d in \u201cO fugace, o superba\u201d (d\u2019India [1615] 1998, 68).'><sup>17<\/sup><\/a><\/span> The table excludes entirely the four sentences identified above that do not end in conjunction with the end of a phrase.<\/p>\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>Interrogative<\/td><td>Other Types<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>All Types<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Galilean Cadences<\/td><td>57 (92%)<\/td><td>262 (99%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>319 (98%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Authentic Cadences<\/td><td>31 (50%)<\/td><td>230 (87%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>261 (80%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Perfect Cadences<\/td><td>3 (5%)<\/td><td>14 (5%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>17 (5%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Phrygian Cadences<\/td><td>16 (26%)<\/td><td>8 (3%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>24 (7%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Half Cadences<\/td><td>7 (11%)<\/td><td>10 (4%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>17 (5%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Other Cadences<\/td><td>5 (8%)<\/td><td>3 (1%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>8 (2%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Total<\/td><td>62 (100%)<\/td><td>265 (100%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>327 (100%)<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><figcaption>Table 2. Frequency of both full and attenuated Galilean cadence types at sentence endings, by sentence type, in the polyphonic madrigals of Sigismondo d\u2019India.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n<p>The table makes clear that d\u2019India relies most often upon the authentic cadence type when setting all types of sentences, including interrogative ones. The Phrygian cadence type, which he employs just 7 percent of the time, remains a distant second. Even so, the composer\u2019s use of authentic cadences drops to only 50 percent at the ends of interrogative sentences, a difference that the chi-square test for goodness of fit reveals to be statistically significant, \u03c7<sup>2<\/sup>(1) = 34.24, <em>p <\/em>&lt; .001, at the predetermined threshold of <em>p<\/em> &lt; .05. His use of other cadence types rises accordingly, with the exception of the perfect cadence, which was fast becoming outmoded by the early seventeenth century (see Taruskin 2010, 470\u2013471).<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\"><figure class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized\"><a href=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/figure01\/\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure01.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7680\" width=\"512\" srcset=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure01.png 1816w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure01-300x114.png 300w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure01-1024x390.png 1024w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure01-768x293.png 768w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure01-1536x585.png 1536w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 706px) 89vw, (max-width: 767px) 82vw, 740px\" \/><\/a><figcaption><br><em>Figure 1. Authentic cadences appear less frequently at the ends of interrogative sentences ( <strong>?<\/strong> ) than at the ends of other sentences ( <strong>. !<\/strong> ) present in the corpus.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p>The magnitude of this shift is further demonstrated in the bar charts shown in Figure 1, which compares visually the cadences with which d\u2019India concludes the interrogative sentences to those with which he concludes the rest. Proportionally, the Phrygian cadence type undergoes the most dramatic change, its use increasing more than eightfold when the composer finds himself at the end of an interrogative sentence (see Example 6 in the Appendix). The tendency for d\u2019India to use Phrygian cadences in that context is indeed statistically significant, \u03c7<sup>2<\/sup>(1) = 31.10, <em>p<\/em> &lt; .001, when compared to his use of the cadence at all sentence endings, as is the tendency for him to use half cadences at the ends of interrogative sentences, \u03c7<sup>2<\/sup>(1) = 4.68, <em>p<\/em> &lt; .05. The tendency for d\u2019India to use so-called \u201cother\u201d cadences\u2014those that do not resemble any of the four Galilean cadence types\u2014at interrogative sentence endings is also statistically significant, \u03c7<sup>2<\/sup>(1) = 8.17, <em>p<\/em> &lt; .01.<\/p>\n<p>The observation that d\u2019India concludes far fewer interrogative sentences with authentic cadences than he does other types of sentences is consistent with the notion that d\u2019India does, in fact, favor the use of weaker cadence types when composing music for the end of an interrogative sentence. This result demonstrates the value of a comparative study. Had we sought information only about his musical treatment of interrogative sentence endings, the observation that d\u2019India furnishes them with authentic cadences 50 percent of the time\u2014nearly twice as often as he furnishes them with Phrygian cadences\u2014would have appeared to contradict a hypothesis that the composer prefers weaker cadence types in such circumstances.<span id='easy-footnote-18-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-18-7654' title=' That d\u2019India has indeed provided authentic cadences for about half of his interrogative sentence endings is perhaps in part a consequence of the fact that interrogative sentences themselves (e.g., \u201cHow dare you?\u201d) are not necessarily weaker or less conclusive than other sentence types.'><sup>18<\/sup><\/a><\/span> However, the knowledge that d\u2019India favors the authentic cadence type more than 85 percent of the time at other sentence endings leads us to the conclusion that such a precipitous (and statistically significant) drop may in fact reveal the opposite: that on a relative basis, d\u2019India is far more likely to favor the Phrygian and half cadence types when the sentence ends in a question mark.<\/p>\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3.2 Cadential Fullness<\/h4>\n\n\n<p>A second means of determining the relative strength of a cadence is to observe whether it is fully realized, attenuated, or evaded entirely. In a full cadence, of course, the composer provides all of the essential contrapuntal motion as the voices align with each other in harmony, rhythm, and text. Cadential attenuation is by nature a more nebulous concept\u2014easier to intuit, perhaps, than to define in theoretical terms. This hardly discouraged sixteenth-century theorists from writing about a range of related practices, most notably that of <em>fuggire la cadenza<\/em> (see Zarlino 1558, 226). For the purpose of this study, however, a convenient set of operational definitions is available in research of a more recent vintage.<\/p>\n<p>John Turci-Escobar (2007, 108) has identified four of the most common techniques with which madrigal composers regularly \u201csoften\u201d a full cadence to produce an attenuated cadence: evaporation, interruption, distortion, and synecdoche. In an <em>evaporated<\/em> cadence, at least one of the voices exits before the cadence is complete. In an <em>interrupted<\/em> cadence, on the other hand, all of the voices fall silent before the final resolution. A <em>distorted<\/em> cadence muddles the essential motion with the introduction of either offset rhythms or unorthodox harmonies. Lastly, and as its name implies, a <em>synecdochic<\/em> cadence creates an impression of closure through the presence of just one cadential element at the end of the phrase. The Appendix provides operational definitions for each method of attenuation in relation to all four of the basic cadence types described in the previous section.<\/p>\n<p>All four of the attenuations serve to weaken, but not to destroy, the arrival of the music at a moment of rest. In contrast, a complete evasion continues the phrase past the point at which a cadence had seemed imminent so that there is no phrase ending to speak of. Turci-Escobar (2007, 108) considers such occurrences to be a particularly extreme form of attenuation\u2014a concept that he has defined to include most any instance of unusual cadential behavior.<span id='easy-footnote-19-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-19-7654' title='For the related concept of phrase overlapping, see Turci-Escobar (2011).'><sup>19<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Here, however, completely evaded cadences appear as a separate category in the data. Identification of not only the cadence type but also its relative fullness thus permits us to continue investigating the correlation between sentence syntax and prosody on the one hand and compositional practices of text setting on the other.<\/p>\n<p>Turning to some of the observations about cadential fullness to be made within the corpus itself, Table 3 reveals the frequency with which d\u2019India attenuates cadences at the ends of sentences according to the four techniques that Turci-Escobar (2007) has described. The table, like those above, does not account for the four sentences that end in the middle of a musical phrase (none of which betray evidence of an evaded cadence). It does, however, include all of the other sentences in the corpus regardless of whether the sentences conclude in conjunction with one of the four cadence types examined earlier.<\/p>\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>Interrogative<\/td><td>Other Types<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>All Types<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Full Cadences<\/td><td>22 (35%)<\/td><td>183 (69%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>205 (63%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Attenuated Cadences<\/td><td>40 (65%)<\/td><td>82 (31%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>122 (37%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 1. Evaporated<\/td><td>8 (13%)<\/td><td>24 (9%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>32 (10%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 2. Interrupted<\/td><td>4 (6%)<\/td><td>4 (2%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>8 (2%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 3. Distorted<\/td><td>22 (35%)<\/td><td>47 (18%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>69 (21%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 4. Synecdochic<\/td><td>6 (10%)<\/td><td>7 (3%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>13 (4%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Evaded Cadences<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Total<\/td><td>62 (100%)<\/td><td>265 (100%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>327 (100%)<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><figcaption>Table 3. Frequency of cadential attenuations at sentence endings, by sentence type, in the polyphonic madrigals of Sigismondo d\u2019India.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n<p>As shown in Table 3, d\u2019India provides full cadences for 63 percent of the sentence endings found throughout the corpus. Yet he provides full cadences at the ends of only 35 percent of the interrogative sentences. The difference is statistically significant, \u03c7<sup>2<\/sup>(1) = 19.63, <em>p<\/em> &lt; .001. The most common form of attenuation for all types of sentences is distortion (see Example 10 in the Appendix). To avoid complication, the data associates each cadence with only one form of attenuation, but the evaporated, interrupted, and synecdochic cadences identified in the table often feature elements of distortion as well. D\u2019India\u2019s reliance upon the latter technique may therefore be even greater than Table 3 would lead us to suppose. Remarkably, none of the cadences with which he accompanies the ends of the sentences appear to be completely evaded.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\"><figure class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized\"><a href=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/figure02\/\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure02.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7683\" width=\"512\" srcset=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure02.png 1812w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure02-300x117.png 300w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure02-1024x399.png 1024w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure02-768x299.png 768w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure02-1536x598.png 1536w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 706px) 89vw, (max-width: 767px) 82vw, 740px\" \/><\/a><figcaption><em>Figure 2. Full cadences appear less frequently at the ends of interrogative sentences ( <strong>?<\/strong> ) than at the ends of other sentences ( <strong>. !<\/strong> ) present in the corpus.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p>The bar charts shown in Figure 2 offer visual emphasis of the extent to which d\u2019India attenuates the cadences that accompany interrogative sentence endings more often than he does the rest. In fact, the proportions are nearly reversed: while the cadences found at interrogative sentence endings seem about twice as likely to be attenuated than full, the others seem about twice as likely to be full than attenuated.<\/p>\n<p>When it comes to interpreting the data gathered about cadential fullness and attenuation, the results could hardly be more obvious. The preponderance of full cadences at the ends of declarative, exclamatory, and imperative sentences in the corpus gives way to a similar preponderance of attenuated cadences at the ends of the interrogative sentences. This observation, like that regarding cadence type in Section 3.1, is again consistent with the argument that d\u2019India tends to compose weaker cadences at interrogative sentence endings.<\/p>\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3.3 Degrees of Resolution<\/h4>\n\n\n<p>The third and final determinant of cadential strength is the modal degree to which each cadence resolves. This approach derives from the writings of the German theorist Seth Calvisius (1592, fol. H 3v; see also Dahlhaus 1990, 229), for whom \u201cprimary\u201d cadences are those that resolve to the final of the mode and \u201csecondary\u201d cadences are those that resolve to the fifth. For Calvisius, primary cadences are to be employed only at the ends of sentences while secondary cadences are instead \u201capt to articulate a colon or be employed when the meaning of the text is suspended, inasmuch as it indicates, <em>in questions<\/em> or at the end of portions of pieces, that something of the whole piece remains to be heard\u201d (quoted in Harr\u00e1n 1986, 396, my italics). An interrogative sentence is therefore best expressed through a cadence that is structurally weaker than that which accompanies a declarative sentence. Cadences that resolve to other degrees besides the final and the fifth are to be used in moderation, Calvisius adds, and only for the articulation of commas.<\/p>\n<p>The resulting observations provide a third measure of relative cadential strength insofar as stronger cadences are more likely to fall on the more essential degrees of the mode. If d\u2019India was of a similar mind to Calvisius, then the cadences that fall at the ends of interrogative sentences in the corpus will tend to resolve to the fifth degree of the mode while those at the ends of other sentences will tend to resolve to the final.<\/p>\n<p>One cannot identify the degree to which a cadence resolves, however, without first having determined the final (i.e., the primary pitch) of the mode itself. This is at times easier said than done. Seth Coluzzi (2015, 257\u2013258) has noted that \u201cbeyond merely observing the starting and ending sonorities (which, theorists tell us, was not sufficient in itself for judging the mode), there are four principal ways by which to determine the mode of a composition\u201d\u2014namely, through an examination of the work\u2019s tonal center, vocal ranges, use of a reciting pitch, and cadential deployment. But to adopt an admittedly crude operational definition by which to identify the mode of each madrigal, let us simply proceed as if the pitch to which the essential voices of the final cadence in the work resolve indicates the final of the mode, with sections of multipartite madrigals to be analyzed individually in relation to the final cadence heard in each section.<\/p>\n<p>Most of the 104 final cadences in the corpus are authentic or perfect cadences, in which the two structural voices resolve in contrary motion to the lower pitch of the perfect fifth found within the closing harmony. However, some Phrygian cadences can feature a structural resolution to the upper pitch instead.<span id='easy-footnote-20-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-20-7654' title='For an overview of the most common Phrygian (clausula in mi) cadential forms, see Coluzzi (2013, 131\u2013132).'><sup>20<\/sup><\/a><\/span> In such cases, the identified final of the mode will therefore differ from what would eventually come to be considered the \u201croot\u201d of the closing harmony.<\/p>\n<p>There is also the matter of determining whether the final is indeed the lowest degree of the mode, or in other words, whether d\u2019India has composed the music in an authentic mode or in its plagal counterpart. Given the staggered vocal ranges that are typically observed within polyphonic textures of the period, the identification of a madrigal\u2019s mode as either authentic or plagal is less straightforward\u2014yet also less essential\u2014than in examples of the plainchant from which those concepts were first derived (Wiering 2001, 10). Calvisius\u2019s advice to place certain cadences on the fifth modal degree, as cited earlier, itself appears to presuppose the use of an authentic mode. Let us therefore follow his lead, and set the question aside, by proceeding with the assumption that all of the madrigals employ an authentic mode.<\/p>\n<p>The operational decision to equate a madrigal\u2019s final pitch of resolution with the final of the mode itself is certainly an oversimplification, as acknowledged above, and one that threatens furthermore to invite a misreading of the data as a whole. Questions of cadential distortion aside, the results would in fact be distorted were they to include the 104 final cadences found throughout the corpus, all of which must by definition\u2014that is, by the study\u2019s operational definitions rather than any theoretical ideal\u2014resolve to the first degree of the mode. Their degree of resolution is not, in other words, variable. The removal of these final cadences from the data (including those found at the ends of sections in multipartite madrigals) has consequently ensured that all of the observed cadences do indeed have the potential to reflect a voluntary choice on the part of the composer.<\/p>\n<p>Table 4 indicates the frequency with which cadences resolve to each degree of the mode at the ends of the different sentence types when we observe only the cadences that accompany the 223 interior sentence endings found throughout the corpus. As usual, the table ignores the four sentences that end in the middle of a musical phrase. The observations are collapsed into a single octave, such that (for example) any cadence that resolves to the fourth below the final is reported in combination with those that resolve to the fifth above.<\/p>\n<p>The table reveals that cadences most often resolve to the first degree of the mode at the ends of all sentence types, an observation which already suggests that the decision to operationalize a work\u2019s final pitch of resolution as a proxy for the mode itself was not a wasted effort. But although the proportion of resolutions to the first degree drops from 40 percent at all sentence endings to only 29 percent at interrogative sentence endings, the change is not statistically significant, \u03c7<sup>2<\/sup>(1) = 3.00, <em>p<\/em> &lt; .1, at the predetermined threshold of <em>p<\/em> &lt; .05. The proportion of resolutions to the fifth degree rises from 20 percent to 29 percent, while resolutions to other modal degrees remain relatively infrequent regardless of sentence type.<\/p>\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>Interrogative<\/td><td>Other Types<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>All Types<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Degree 1 (Final)<\/td><td>16 (29%)<\/td><td>73 (44%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>89 (40%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Other Pitches<\/td><td>40 (71%)<\/td><td>94 (56%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>134 (60%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Degree 2<\/td><td>5 (9%)<\/td><td>20 (12%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>25 (11%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Degree 3<\/td><td>5 (9%)<\/td><td>11 (7%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>16 (7%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Degree 4<\/td><td>3 (5%)<\/td><td>18 (11%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>21 (9%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Degree 5<\/td><td>16 (29%)<\/td><td>28 (17%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>44 (20%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Degree 6<\/td><td>4 (7%)<\/td><td>7 (4%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>11 (5%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Degree 7<\/td><td>7 (13%)<\/td><td>10 (6%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>17 (8%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Total<\/td><td>56 (100%)<\/td><td>167 (100%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>223 (100%)<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><figcaption>Table 4. Frequency of resolutions to each modal degree at interior sentence endings, by sentence type, in the polyphonic madrigals of Sigismondo d\u2019India.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Figure 3 illustrates these findings, and serves to emphasize the composer\u2019s equal utilization of resolutions to modal degrees one and five at interrogative interior sentence endings. Such a balance would appear to stand in stark contrast to his overwhelming preference for resolutions to the final degree of the mode at other interior sentence endings. The fact that the results were not found to be significant may owe simply to the modest size of the corpus. In other words, had the same proportional differences occurred within a larger data set, those differences would easily have satisfied the chi-square test.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\"><figure class=\"aligncenter size-large is-resized\"><a href=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/figure03\/\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure03-1024x419.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7684\" width=\"512\" srcset=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure03-1024x419.png 1024w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure03-300x123.png 300w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure03-768x314.png 768w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure03-1536x629.png 1536w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure03.png 1791w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 706px) 89vw, (max-width: 767px) 82vw, 740px\" \/><\/a><figcaption><em>Figure 3. Interior cadences resolve to the first degree of the mode somewhat less frequently at the ends of interrogative sentences ( <strong>?<\/strong> ) than at the ends of other sentences ( <strong>. !<\/strong> ) present in the corpus, although the results are not statistically significant.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>4. Placing Cadences in Formal Context<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n<p>Our initial hypothesis, from Section 1.2, predicted that \u201cthe cadences which d\u2019India employs at the close of interrogative sentences will be weaker than those he employs at the close of other sentence types.\u201d In twice refuting the null hypothesis (H\u2080), the results presented above appear in large part to bear this out.<\/p>\n<p>Few of the sixteenth-century theorists cited earlier provide composers with specific guidance about the appropriate handling of different sentence types. Stoquerus, for one, recommends in general terms that \u201cin songs, the accent to be considered is not so much that of individual words as that of the entire phrase\u201d ([ca. 1570] 1988, 205; see also Towne 1990, 282\u2013285). His argument that the accent of an entire phrase relates closely to that of its final words suggests that he may have understood the accent of an interrogative sentence to reflect its characteristic rising intonation, but his focus remains primarily on the composer\u2019s choice of rhythm rather than of pitch.<\/p>\n<p>The only direct mention of interrogative sentences pertains to the modal degree of resolution, the only determinant of cadential strength that was found not to be statistically significant. As noted earlier, Calvisius (1592, fol. H, 3v) distinguishes between primary cadences that resolve to the final of the mode and secondary cadences that resolve to the fifth. His recommendation that composers should employ primary or \u201cproper\u201d cadences only at sentence endings, quoted above, precedes the argument that secondary cadences are better suited to conclude weaker sentences such as those ending with colons or question marks (Calvisius 1592, fol. I, 3v). Without statistically significant results in hand, we must remain ignorant of the practices to be found within the repertory itself. However, a substantial number of the cadences were found to resolve to other degrees of the mode (neither the final nor the fifth) despite being located at the ends of sentences. To the extent that this last observation is not an artifact of flaws in the operational definitions used in the study, it may reflect the spirit of a different theoretical maxim put forward by not Calvisius but Zarlino: \u201cWe should not always place it [i.e., the cadence] on the same degree, but rather on different degrees in order for a more pleasing and delightful music to result from the variety\u201d (Zarlino [1558] 1965, 221, trans. Harr\u00e1n 1986, 393\u2013394).<\/p>\n<p>Thus far, our examination of the five-part madrigals of Sigismondo d\u2019India appears to substantiate the theoretical arguments of contemporaneous writers like Zarlino in ways that have rarely been observed in the music of a practicing composer outside of individual case studies. Musicologists are wise to acknowledge the historical frequency with which music theory has operated as a retrospective and indeed prescriptive endeavor, with the consequent caveat that the theory does not necessarily make fair representation of contemporaneous compositional practices. Claude V. Palisca, for one, recognized that \u201cthe laws of composition set down by Zarlino . . . evolved from an ideal view of nature, leaving the immediate facts in the distance\u201d (1956, 85). Yet the preceding observations nevertheless provide a welcome reminder that theory and practice often share common ground.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\"><figure class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized\"><a href=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/example03\/\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example03.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7685\" width=\"512\" srcset=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example03.png 1724w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example03-300x183.png 300w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example03-1024x624.png 1024w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example03-768x468.png 768w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example03-1536x936.png 1536w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 706px) 89vw, (max-width: 767px) 82vw, 740px\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Example 3. A rhythmically distorted perfect cadence concludes the interrogative phrase \u201cche soccorso avr\u00e0 \u2019l morire?\u201d (what succor will death bring to me?) in mm. 9\u201312 of d\u2019India\u2019s \u201cParlo, miser, o taccio?\u201d ([1606] 1997, 12\u201313).<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p>We now understand that for d\u2019India to conclude his setting of an interrogative sentence with, say, a distorted perfect cadence (Example 3) is hardly a coincidence.<span id='easy-footnote-21-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-21-7654' title='The music in Example 3 has been transposed down by one whole tone in order to restore the written pitch level of the original seventeenth-century edition.'><sup>21<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Although the corpus contains plenty of interrogative sentences that are not accompanied by such cadential devices, the study reveals that d\u2019India is more likely than not to employ an attenuated and non-authentic cadence in these situations. Of chief importance is that no matter which cadence the composer chooses, the observed statistical correlation establishes that he had indeed drawn a connection between sentence type and cadence strength\u2014one that is not, we can now be sure, a mere projection on the part of the analyst.<\/p>\n<p>More to the point, these results suggest that of the twenty madrigals that comprise d\u2019India\u2019s Third Book of 1615, it is \u201cDove, ah dove t\u2019en vai?\u201d and not \u201cO fugace, o superba\u201d that departs from the conventions of his cadential style. Knowing now that the composer furnishes interrogative sentence endings with full authentic cadences less than 25 percent of the time, the full authentic cadence with which he concludes \u201cDove\u201d would certainly appear to be the more peculiar of the two. Such an interpretation does, however, ignore the implications of one final variable to be observed in the data already collected.<\/p>\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4.1 Final Cadence Types<\/h4>\n\n\n<p>Although our earlier examination of modal degrees of resolution did not yield statistically significant results, the method employed demonstrated the potential importance of distinguishing between final cadences and those that are interior to the madrigal. When such a distinction is applied to the observations about cadence type and fullness, a more nuanced pattern of compositional behavior comes into focus.<\/p>\n<p>We must, in other words, observe how d\u2019India chooses the type of cadence in relation to the musical context of the phrase. The results shown below compare the frequency with which the composer deploys each cadence type for sentences that end with an interior cadence (Table 5a) to those that end with a final cadence (Table 5b). Authentic cadences are heard in 74 percent of the former cases yet 93 percent of the latter. Such a comparison suggests that d\u2019India is even more likely to close a phrase with an authentic cadence\u2014no matter the type of sentence involved\u2014when that cadence also closes an entire section of music. The preceding observation is statistically significant, \u03c7<sup>2<\/sup>(1) = 11.68, <em>p<\/em> &lt; .001, when measured against his use of the authentic cadence at all sentence endings (see Table 2).<\/p>\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td>INTERIOR PHRASES<\/td><td>Interrogative<\/td><td>Other Types<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>All Types<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Galilean Cadences<\/td><td>51 (91%)<\/td><td>164 (98%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>215 (96%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Authentic Cadences<\/td><td>26 (46%)<\/td><td>138 (83%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>164 (74%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Perfect Cadences<\/td><td>3 (5%)<\/td><td>12 (7%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>15 (7%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Phrygian Cadences<\/td><td>15 (27%)<\/td><td>4 (2%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>19 (9%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Half Cadences<\/td><td>7 (13%)<\/td><td>10 (6%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>17 (8%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Other Cadences<\/td><td>5 (9%)<\/td><td>3 (2%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>8 (4%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Total<\/td><td>56 (100%)<\/td><td>167 (100%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>223 (100%)<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><figcaption>Table 5a. Frequency of both full and attenuated Galilean cadence types for sentences that end with an interior cadence, by sentence type, in the polyphonic madrigals of Sigismondo d\u2019India.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td>FINAL PHRASES<\/td><td>Interrogative<\/td><td>Other Types<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>All Types<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Galilean Cadences<\/td><td>6 (100%)<\/td><td>98 (100%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>104 (100%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Authentic Cadences<\/td><td>5 (83%)<\/td><td>92 (94%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>97 (93%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Perfect Cadences<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><td>2 (2%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>2 (2%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Phrygian Cadences<\/td><td>1 (17%)<\/td><td>4 (4%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>5 (5%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Half Cadences<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Other Cadences<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Total<\/td><td>6 (100%)<\/td><td>98 (100%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>104 (100%)<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><figcaption>Table 5b. Frequency of both full and attenuated Galilean cadence types for sentences that end with a final cadence, by sentence type, in the polyphonic madrigals of Sigismondo d\u2019India.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\"><figure class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized\"><a href=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/figure04a\/\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure04a.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7688\" width=\"512\" srcset=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure04a.png 1810w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure04a-300x117.png 300w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure04a-1024x401.png 1024w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure04a-768x300.png 768w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure04a-1536x601.png 1536w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 706px) 89vw, (max-width: 767px) 82vw, 740px\" \/><\/a><figcaption><em>Figure 4a. For sentences that end with an interior cadence, authentic cadences appear less frequently at the ends of interrogative sentences ( <strong>?<\/strong> ) than at the ends of other sentences ( <strong>. !<\/strong> ) present in the corpus.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\"><figure class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized\"><a href=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/figure04b\/\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure04b.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7689\" width=\"512\" srcset=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure04b.png 1796w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure04b-300x119.png 300w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure04b-1024x405.png 1024w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure04b-768x304.png 768w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure04b-1536x607.png 1536w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 706px) 89vw, (max-width: 767px) 82vw, 740px\" \/><\/a><figcaption><em>Figure 4b. For sentences that end with a final cadence, authentic cadences appear almost as frequently at the ends of interrogative sentences ( <strong>?<\/strong> ) as at the ends of other sentences ( <strong>. !<\/strong> ) present in the corpus.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n<p>The results presented above are illustrated in Figure 4 and find support in the theoretical literature of the period. For Galilei ([1588\u20131591] 1980, 144), the presence of a rising semitone and powerful leap in the bass make the \u201cvirile\u201d authentic cadence the only appropriate choice with which to conclude a piece of polyphonic music (La Via 2013, 72). He likewise recommends that contrapuntally weaker cadence types\u2014namely those which La Via (2013, 50) has identified as perfect, Phrygian, and half\u2014be used only in the middle of a piece and never at the end. Whereas d\u2019India\u2019s behavior at interior phrase endings (Table 5a) therefore continues to support the conclusions reached earlier, his behavior at final phrase endings (Table 5b) would seem to reveal a overriding preference for the use of authentic cadences regardless of whether or not the sentence is interrogative.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4.2 Fullness of Final Cadences<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>In parallel with the preceding discussion of cadence types, we may also distinguish between the frequency with which d\u2019India uses techniques of cadential attenuation for sentences that end with an interior cadence (Table 6a) and for sentences that end with a final cadence (Table 6b). The comparison again reveals the composer\u2019s orthodox treatment of final cadences: not only are they more likely to be authentic, but they are more likely to be full (i.e., without attenuation) as well. See Example 4 in the Appendix. His preference for full cadences at final phrases is indeed statistically significant, \u03c7<sup>2<\/sup>(1) = 46.97, <em>p<\/em> &lt; .001, when measured against his use of full cadences at all sentence endings (see Table 3).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td>INTERIOR PHRASES<\/td><td>Interrogative<\/td><td>Other Types<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>All Types<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Full Cadences<\/td><td>16 (29%)<\/td><td>90 (54%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>106 (48%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Attenuated Cadences<\/td><td>39 (71%)<\/td><td>78 (46%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>117 (52%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 1. Evaporated<\/td><td>8 (15%)<\/td><td>23 (14%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>31 (14%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 2. Interrupted<\/td><td>4 (7%)<\/td><td>4 (2%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>8 (4%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 3. Distorted<\/td><td>22 (40%)<\/td><td>44 (26%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>66 (30%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 4. Synecdochic<\/td><td>5 (9%)<\/td><td>7 (4%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>12 (5%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Evaded Cadences<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Total<\/td><td>55 (100%)<\/td><td>168 (100%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>223 (100%)<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><figcaption><em>Table 6a. Frequency of cadential attenuation for sentences that end with an interior cadence, by sentence type, in the polyphonic madrigals of Sigismondo d\u2019India.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td>FINAL PHRASES<\/td><td>Interrogative<\/td><td>Other Types<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>All Types<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Full Cadences<\/td><td>5 (83%)<\/td><td>94 (96%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>99 (95%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Attenuated Cadences<\/td><td>1 (17%)<\/td><td>4 (4%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>5 (5%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 1. Evaporated<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><td>1 (1%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>1 (1%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 2. Interrupted<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 3. Distorted<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><td>3 (3%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>3 (3%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 4. Synecdochic<\/td><td>1 (17%)<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>1 (1%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Evaded Cadences<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>0 (0%)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Total<\/td><td>6 (100%)<\/td><td>98 (100%)<\/td><td>&nbsp;<\/td><td>104 (100%)<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><figcaption><em>Table 6b. Frequency of cadential attenuation for sentences that end with a final cadence, by sentence type, in the polyphonic madrigals of Sigismondo d\u2019India.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\"><figure class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized\"><a href=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/figure05a\/\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure05a.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7692\" width=\"512\" srcset=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure05a.png 1786w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure05a-300x119.png 300w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure05a-1024x405.png 1024w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure05a-768x304.png 768w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure05a-1536x607.png 1536w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 706px) 89vw, (max-width: 767px) 82vw, 740px\" \/><\/a><figcaption><em>Figure 5a. For sentences that end with an interior cadence, full cadences appear less frequently at the ends of interrogative sentences ( <strong>?<\/strong> ) than at the ends of other sentences ( <strong>. !<\/strong> ) present in the corpus.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\"><figure class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized\"><a href=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/figure05b\/\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure05b.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7693\" width=\"512\" srcset=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure05b.png 1788w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure05b-300x117.png 300w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure05b-1024x400.png 1024w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure05b-768x300.png 768w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Figure05b-1536x600.png 1536w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 706px) 89vw, (max-width: 767px) 82vw, 740px\" \/><\/a><figcaption><em>Figure 5b. For sentences that end with a final cadence, full cadences appear almost as frequently at the ends of interrogative sentences ( <strong>?<\/strong> ) as at the ends of other sentences ( <strong>. !<\/strong> ) present in the corpus.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p>The preceding observations, illustrated in Figure 5, again find some support in the literature, although the topic hardly seems to have commanded much attention from theorists then or now. Zarlino (1558, 224) does recommend that certain \u201cdiminished\u201d (<em>Diminuite<\/em>) cadences should be employed \u201cin the middle of a work, and not at the end,\u201d but only with regard to cadences that involve a leap of a fourth or a fifth within a two-voice texture. He provides no such advice in his later discussion of cadences within a texture of three or four voices (249\u2013250).<\/p>\n<p>As with his choice of cadence types, d\u2019India\u2019s behavior at interior phrase endings (Table 6a) here remains consistent with the conclusions reached earlier, while his behavior at final phrase endings (Table 6b) now suggests a strong inclination towards the use of full cadences no matter the type of sentence.<\/p>\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>5. Conclusion<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n<p>The above observations hardly negate the general conclusions reached in Section 3\u2014namely, that d\u2019India often tends to employ weaker cadences at the ends of interrogative sentences. They do, however, establish that the compositional calculus changes significantly in the context of final cadences with regard to both cadence type and fullness. The faithfulness with which d\u2019India employs full authentic cadences at the ends of his madrigals demonstrates one circumstance in which musical considerations would seem to outweigh the appropriate treatment of the text even when the final sentence is interrogative in nature.<\/p>\n<p>The results of this corpus study therefore both admit and refute the hypothesis proposed at the outset: with the glaring exception of the final cadences, there is little in the data to suggest that Sigismondo d\u2019India did not treat interrogative sentences differently from sentences of other types. Although the results generally disprove the null hypothesis, it is important to remember that they do not prove\u2014in fact, could never have proven\u2014our actual hypothesis. As in any formal empirical study, there always remains the possibility that other factors are responsible for having caused the differences observed above.<\/p>\n<p>For example, is it possible that d\u2019India sometimes considers a short interrogative phrase to end with the equivalent of not a period but a comma? The composer may well employ weaker cadences at commas and unmarked line endings in order to signal his listeners that the entire sentence remains incomplete. Such an idea seems plausible, especially in consideration of the line from \u201cO fugace, o superba\u201d that was found to comprise three interrogative sentences in a row. On the other hand, we may observe a number of short phrases in the corpus that end with periods as well. The question has yet to be explored.<\/p>\n<p>There also remain alternative methods by which to measure the relative strength of the cadences. For example, a subsequent study might examine their rhythmic perfection, the characteristic pattern of syncopation that La Via (2013, 50) has also shown to communicate \u201cassertive power\u201d for Galilei. It follows from the same hypothesis that d\u2019India would be more likely to eschew such perfection in the cadences that he composes at the ends of interrogative sentences than at the ends of others. The present study does not address this characteristic in part because one tends to recognize the sound of an interrogative sentence through not its rhythm but its pitch. But given the extent to which perfection can function as another marker of cadential strength, and with due regard to Stoquerus\u2019s ([ca. 1570] 1988, 205) support for the rhythmic retardation of phrase endings, a future study of the corpus may reveal it to be significant nonetheless.<\/p>\n<p>Finally, the present study has much to teach us about the compositional sensibilities of Sigismondo d\u2019India, but only in general terms. All else being equal, we can reasonably assert that d\u2019India is less likely to employ a full authentic cadence to end a sentence in the text when that sentence is an interrogative one. That is the trend. All else is rarely equal, however, and we must again acknowledge that this sort of statistical study can do little to reveal why the composer may have chosen to construct a particular cadence in the music to accompany the ending of a particular sentence in the text. The specific artistic circumstances that will have precipitated any such compositional decision remain both countless in number and unpredictable in their collective effect. For example, what to make of the four Phrygian cadences, two of them attenuated, that populate the middle column of Table 5b? Each accompanies a non-interrogative sentence and comes at the end of the music, yet d\u2019India abandons his observed tendency to provide an authentic cadence in those places. The decision may arise from his reading of the text, from compositional decisions taken earlier in the piece, or from considerations entirely unanticipated by the historian.<\/p>\n<p>Yet these mysteries hardly detract from the importance of the overall pattern that the results presented here have revealed, a pattern that would have been difficult to verify <em>without<\/em> quantitative means. The study has established that a composer of the late Renaissance relied upon a consistent strategy of musical representation in order to realize the syntactic and prosodic implications of the texts that lay before him. With regard to the legacy of d\u2019India himself, scholars such as Giuseppe Collisani (1998, 39) have long proclaimed \u201cthe very clear articulation of the madrigal in different sections that, corresponding to the various logical units of the poetic text, highlight its caesure and connections\u201d to be a particular strength of his musical style. We now have the opportunity to appreciate the care with which the same composer articulates smaller syntactic units as well. The newly revealed techniques by which d\u2019India manipulates cadential strength when setting interrogative sentences significantly expand our knowledge of how a composer of sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century polyphony heard, and thus allowed his listeners to hear, the syntactic design of a text.<\/p>\n<p>Equipped with such knowledge, let us now return to the pair of examples with which the study began. At first glance, d\u2019India\u2019s compositional approach had appeared to corroborate Monteverdi\u2019s assertion that in music of the <em>seconda pratica<\/em>, the words have indeed become the master (<em>padrona<\/em>) of the harmony. That the observed pattern disappears in the context of final cadences means, however, that the cadence which concludes \u201cDove, ah dove t\u2019en vai?\u201d is not the compositional anomaly we may have supposed. Nearly all of the madrigals in the corpus end with a full, non-attenuated authentic cadence, even when the final sentence is interrogative.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cO fugace, o superba,\u201d closing as it does with an attenuated Phrygian cadence, again becomes the odd one out. There are, in fact, only five attenuated final cadences of any type to be found throughout the entire corpus of 85 madrigals. Not one of the other four coincides with an interrogative sentence ending (see Example 10 in the Appendix). Such cadences are therefore the idiosyncratic exceptions that prove the rule. Contrary to the spirit of Monteverdi\u2019s claim, the present study makes clear that d\u2019India usually gives the music priority over the words at his final cadences. When the composer is faced with a choice between communicating the sense of the words and honoring the musical conventions of the genre, the music almost always wins out in the end. Perhaps the harmony is not the servant but the master, after all.<\/p>\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Appendix: Operational Definitions of Full and Attenuated Cadence Types<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n<p>The operational definitions that the present study has employed in order to identify types of full and attenuated cadences are provided below, with select musical examples. Definitions for the four basic cadence types\u2014authentic, perfect, Phrygian, and half\u2014are based on musical exemplars published by Stefano La Via (2013, 51). Definitions for the various techniques of cadential attenuation\u2014evaporation, interruption, distortion, and synecdoche\u2014are based on those described by John Turci-Escobar (2007, 108). The application of those techniques of attenuation to the four basic cadence types has produced the operational definitions printed below.<\/p>\n<p>To be clear, the purpose of each operational definition is not to capture the theoretical essence of a particular cadence type. Instead, its purpose is to provide an objective diagnostic tool with which one may somewhat mechanically categorize most of the cadences to be found within the corpus. For example, the following definition of a full authentic cadence makes no mention of the fact that the final harmony is likely to include the interval of a perfect fifth above the structural pitch of resolution, even though this quality may be considered essential to a theoretical understanding of the cadence type.<\/p>\n<p>An operational definition was not constructed for the interrupted half cadence because, unlike the other cadence types, its typical penultimate harmony does not necessarily suggest that the musical phrase will end in a half cadence. Neither was an operational definition constructed for the synecdochic half cadence because the (full) half cadence type has itself been operationalized to contain only one distinguishing feature: the falling semitone. In a sense, the cadence (as defined for the purposes of this study) is therefore already synecdochic.<\/p>\n<h4><strong>Full Cadence Types<\/strong><\/h4>\n<p><strong>Full Authentic Cadence.<\/strong> Stepwise contrary motion to the octave or the unison between two upper voices, one of which features a rising semitone, together with the leap of a rising perfect fourth or falling perfect fifth to the same pitch class in the lowest voice (see Example 4).<span id='easy-footnote-22-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-22-7654' title=' The music in Example 4 has been transposed three semitones higher to restore the written pitch level of the original seventeenth-century edition.'><sup>22<\/sup><\/a><\/span> The voices share a simultaneous moment of resolution, except in cases where a pitch shared by both of the harmonies is sustained through the resolution. The definition also admits an implied stepwise descent in the upper voices when a different voice supplies the second pitch.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Full Perfect Cadence.<\/strong> Stepwise contrary motion to the octave or the unison between two voices, one of which features a rising semitone, without the leap of a perfect fourth or fifth to the same pitch class in the lowest voice (see Example 5). The voices share a simultaneous moment of resolution, except in cases where a pitch shared by both of the harmonies is sustained through the resolution. The definition also admits an implied stepwise descent when a different voice supplies the second pitch.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Full Phrygian Cadence. <\/strong>Stepwise contrary motion to the octave or the unison between two voices, one of which features a falling semitone (see Example 6). The voices share a simultaneous moment of resolution, except in cases where a pitch shared by both of the harmonies is sustained through the resolution. The definition also admits an implied stepwise ascent when a different voice supplies the second pitch.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Full Half Cadence.<\/strong> Presence of a falling semitone in one voice, without contrary motion to the same pitch class in another, as the voice moves to the third of the final harmony (see Example 7). (Such consideration of the harmonic context is necessary in order to distinguish this cadence from the synecdochic Phrygian cadence, below.) The voices move simultaneously to the final harmony of the phrase, except in cases where a pitch shared by the penultimate harmony is sustained.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\"><figure class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized\"><a href=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/example04\/\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example04.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7698\" width=\"384\" srcset=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example04.jpg 1626w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example04-300x215.jpg 300w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example04-1024x736.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example04-768x552.jpg 768w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example04-1536x1103.jpg 1536w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 706px) 89vw, (max-width: 767px) 82vw, 740px\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Example 4. A full authentic cadence in d\u2019India\u2019s \u201cIo parto s\u00ec,\u201d mm. 52\u201356 ([1611] 1997, 43).<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\"><figure class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized\"><a href=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/example05\/\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example05.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7700\" width=\"384\" srcset=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example05.png 1251w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example05-300x247.png 300w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example05-1024x845.png 1024w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example05-768x634.png 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 706px) 89vw, (max-width: 767px) 82vw, 740px\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Example 5. A full perfect cadence in d\u2019India\u2019s \u201c\u00c8 partito io mio bene; O Dio, quel dolce addio,\u201d mm. 4\u20136 ([1615] 1998, 34\u201335).<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\"><figure class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized\"><a href=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/example06\/\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example06.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7701\" width=\"384\" srcset=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example06.png 1134w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example06-300x260.png 300w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example06-1024x888.png 1024w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example06-768x666.png 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 706px) 89vw, (max-width: 767px) 82vw, 740px\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Example 6. A full Phrygian cadence in d\u2019India\u2019s \u201cMa che tardi, Martillo?\u201d mm. 14\u201316 ([1616] 1999, 52).<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\"><figure class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized\"><a href=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/example07\/\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example07.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7702\" width=\"384\" srcset=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example07.png 1621w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example07-300x209.png 300w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example07-1024x713.png 1024w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example07-768x535.png 768w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example07-1536x1070.png 1536w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 706px) 89vw, (max-width: 767px) 82vw, 740px\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Example 7. A full half cadence in d\u2019India\u2019s \u201c\u00c8 partito il mio bene; O Dio, quel dolce addio,\u201d mm. 86\u201389 ([1615] 1998, 44).<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<h4><strong>Evaporated Cadence Types<\/strong><\/h4>\n<p><strong>Evaporated Authentic Cadence.<\/strong> Some but not all of the voices fall silent at the moment of resolution (see Example 8). The lowest voice either completes its leap or ends early in a position to have completed it.<span id='easy-footnote-23-7654' class='easy-footnote-margin-adjust'><\/span><span class='easy-footnote'><a href='https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/#easy-footnote-bottom-23-7654' title='The music in Example 8 has been transposed down by one whole tone in order to restore the written pitch level of the original seventeenth-century edition.'><sup>23<\/sup><\/a><\/span>\n<p><strong>Evaporated Perfect Cadence.<\/strong> Some but not all of the voices fall silent at the moment of resolution. At least one of the two structural voices provides a rising semitone or falling whole tone, while the second voice (if falling silent) ends in a position to have provided the other. No evident preparation of a leap by perfect fourth or fifth to the same pitch class in the lowest voice.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Evaporated Phrygian Cadence.<\/strong> Some but not all of the voices fall silent at the moment of resolution. At least one of the two structural voices provides a falling semitone or rising whole tone, while the second voice (if falling silent) ends in a position to have provided the other.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Evaporated Half Cadence. <\/strong>Some but not all of the voices fall silent at the moment of resolution. The falling semitone is present, without a second voice moving in stepwise contrary motion or falling silent in a position to have provided it.<\/p>\n<h4><strong>Interrupted Cadence Types<\/strong><\/h4>\n<p><strong>Interrupted Authentic Cadence. <\/strong>All of the voices fall silent at the expected moment of resolution (see Example 9). The three structural voices end in positions that would have accommodated the necessary resolution. The rhythmic perfection of a 4\u20133 suspension distinguishes this cadence from the full half cadence, in which the voices move simultaneously to the final harmony.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Interrupted Perfect Cadence.<\/strong> All of the voices fall silent at the expected moment of resolution. Both structural voices end in positions that would have accommodated the necessary contrary motion.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Interrupted Phrygian Cadence.<\/strong> All of the voices fall silent at the expected moment of resolution. Both structural voices end in positions that would have accommodated the necessary contrary motion.<\/p>\n<h4><strong>Distorted Cadence Types<\/strong><\/h4>\n<p><strong>Distorted Authentic Cadence.<\/strong> All three of the structural voices complete the cadence, but some voices are rhythmically misaligned and\/or provide unconventional harmonies at the moment of resolution. An unconventional harmony is understood to be any pitch that does not fall within the expected major triad. Alternately, the harmony lacks the major third.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Distorted Perfect Cadence.<\/strong> Both of the structural voices complete the cadence, but some voices are rhythmically misaligned and\/or provide unconventional harmonies at the moment of resolution. Alternately, the harmony lacks the major third.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Distorted Phrygian Cadence.<\/strong> Both of the structural voices complete the cadence, but some voices are rhythmically misaligned and\/or provide unconventional harmonies at the moment of resolution (see Example 10). Alternately, the harmony lacks the major third.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Distorted Half Cadence. <\/strong>The falling semitone (to the third of the final harmony) is heard in one voice, without contrary motion to the same pitch class in another, but some voices are rhythmically misaligned and\/or provide unconventional harmonies at the end of the phrase.<\/p>\n<h4><strong>Synecdochic Cadence Types<\/strong><\/h4>\n<p><strong>Synecdochic Authentic Cadence. <\/strong>Leap of a rising perfect fourth or falling perfect fifth in the lowest voice, without at least one of the other structural voices.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Synecdochic Perfect Cadence.<\/strong> The rising semitone is heard in one voice, without the expected stepwise contrary motion and without the leap of a perfect fourth or fifth to the same pitch class in the lowest voice (see Example 11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Synecdochic Phrygian Cadence.<\/strong> The falling semitone is heard in one voice, without stepwise contrary motion to the same pitch class, as the voice resolves to the root or to the fifth of the final harmony. (Such consideration of the harmonic context is necessary in order to distinguish this cadence from the full half cadence, above.)<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\"><figure class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized\"><a href=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/example08\/\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example08.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7704\" width=\"512\" srcset=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example08.jpg 1762w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example08-300x184.jpg 300w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example08-1024x628.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example08-768x471.jpg 768w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example08-1536x942.jpg 1536w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 706px) 89vw, (max-width: 767px) 82vw, 740px\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Example 8. An evaporated authentic cadence in d\u2019India\u2019s \u201cParlo, miser, o taccio?\u201d mm. 13\u201317 ([1606] 1997, 13).<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\"><figure class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized\"><a href=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/example09\/\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example09.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7706\" width=\"512\" srcset=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example09.png 1474w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example09-300x209.png 300w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example09-1024x715.png 1024w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example09-768x536.png 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 706px) 89vw, (max-width: 767px) 82vw, 740px\" \/><\/a><figcaption><em>Example 9. An interrupted authentic cadence in d\u2019India\u2019s \u201cDove, ah dove t\u2019en vai?\u201d mm. 25\u201327 ([1615] 1998, 13).<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\"><figure class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized\"><a href=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/example10\/\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example10.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7707\" width=\"512\" srcset=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example10.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example10-300x151.jpg 300w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example10-1024x515.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example10-768x386.jpg 768w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example10-1536x772.jpg 1536w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 706px) 89vw, (max-width: 767px) 82vw, 740px\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Example 10. A rhythmically distorted Phrygian cadence in d\u2019India\u2019s \u201cInterdette speranz\u2019e van desio; E se per me; Usin le stelle,\u201d mm. 175\u2013181 ([1606] 1997, 87).<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\"><figure class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized\"><a href=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/example11\/\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example11.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7708\" width=\"512\" srcset=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example11.png 1571w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example11-300x181.png 300w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example11-1024x619.png 1024w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example11-768x464.png 768w, https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Example11-1536x929.png 1536w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 706px) 89vw, (max-width: 767px) 82vw, 740px\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Example 11. A synecdochic perfect cadence in d\u2019India\u2019s \u201cHor ch\u2019\u00e8 giunto il partire,\u201d mm. 45\u201349 ([1616] 1999, 62\u201363).<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator\"\/>\n\n\n\n<div style=\"height:70px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"wp-block-spacer\"><\/div>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>References<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n<p>Berger, Karol. 1987. <em>Musica ficta: Theories of accidental inflections in vocal polyphony from Marchetto da Padova to Gioseffo Zarlino<\/em>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.<\/p>\n<p>Burkholder, J. Peter, and Claude V. Palisca, eds. 2014. <em>Norton Anthology of Western Music Volume 1: Ancient to Baroque<\/em>. 7th edition. New York: W. W. Norton.<\/p>\n<p>Calvisius, Seth. 1592. <em>ME\u039bO\u03a0OIIA [Melopoeia] sive melodiae condendae ratio, quam vulg\u00f2 musicam po\u00ebticam vocant, ex veris fundamentis extructa et explicata<\/em>. 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Marco and Claude V. Palisca. New Haven: Yale University Press.<\/p>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Derek R. Strykowski Abstract Although two of the madrigals from his Third Book of 1615 end in lovelorn questions, Sigismondo d\u2019India furnishes one of them with a far stronger final cadence than the other. To understand why, this corpus study investigates the expressive meaning of cadences in a quantitative analysis of the 85 madrigals that &hellip; <\/p>\n<p class=\"link-more\"><a href=\"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/36-2023\/strykowski\/\" class=\"more-link\">Continue reading<span class=\"screen-reader-text\"> &#8220;Hearing the Interrogative in the Cadences of Sigismondo d\u2019India: A Quantitative Analysis of the Polyphonic Madrigals&#8221;<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":18,"featured_media":0,"parent":7648,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_oasis_is_in_workflow":0,"_oasis_original":0,"_exactmetrics_skip_tracking":false,"_exactmetrics_sitenote_active":false,"_exactmetrics_sitenote_note":"","_exactmetrics_sitenote_category":0,"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-7654","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/7654","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/18"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=7654"}],"version-history":[{"count":34,"href":"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/7654\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":8975,"href":"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/7654\/revisions\/8975"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/7648"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/theory.esm.rochester.edu\/integral\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=7654"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}